As 2025 began, the world watched the devastating fires in southern California. The fires spread rapidly over chaparral-covered hillsides under extremely dry conditions and Santa Ana winds. Thousands were forced to evacuate as the fires moved into communities and passed from one structure to the next. More than 12,000 people lost their homes. More than 100 people lost their lives.
It is hard to imagine the levels of grief and disruption that the fires brought to the people living through it. A lot of questions, investigations and finger-pointing will come out in the aftermath.
Devastating fires have become so frequent that we have too many opportunities to learn what they can do and how they do it. Fortunately, we are learning how to be better prepared and protected from the risk.
During the driest winter in most people’s memories, residents of southwest Colorado are experiencing a wake-up call about the wildfire threat. Many people are beginning to fear what our next fire season will bring. Our wildfire season here has already begun. If we want to minimize our risk, we need to take a realistic look at our ecosystem, homes and lifestyle.
Most of southwestern Colorado can be referred to as a frequent-fire ecosystem. For thousands of years before European colonization, wildfire was part of the landscape. Lightning was the most frequent source of ignition. Fire would spread through the underbrush and grass. Sections of forest would burn, but usually not the huge-acreage fires that we see today.
What’s changed to make these fires so large? As an example, let’s look at the ponderosa pine forests that are so prevalent in our area. Those frequent lightning strike fires in what is now the San Juan National Forest in Colorado historically occurred every five to 15 years in any one location. Those fires would spread through the underbrush, young saplings and grasses and sometimes would torch a few stands of mature trees.
Ponderosa have adapted to fire. The lower branches of the tree die as new growth progresses at the top. The dead branches no longer have green needles on them. Those pine needles contain volatile oils that are readily flammable. It takes more heat and flame to ignite those dead lower branches than it does to ignite the green needles. The tree’s thick bark does not readily ignite. This self-pruning process and protective bark allows a brush fire to pass under the tree and not reach into the tree canopy, where it could easily pass from canopy to canopy.
That frequent burning kept the ponderosa forest thinned, leaving gaps between the trees. Those gaps could slow or stop the spread of a canopy fire. Centuries of repeating this scenario led to a patchworked landscape, with single trees and clumps of trees separated by some open areas. The ever-present Gambel oak underbrush was regularly burned back, removing the ladders that fire could climb to reach the tree canopy. Much of the time a fire would run out of fuel when it reached an area that had previously burned.
European settlement changed all of this. Grasslands were grazed. Forests were clearcut and abandoned after they were harvested. Fire was suppressed. From 1910 onward, wildfires were put out as soon as possible in order to protect resources.
After decades of fire suppression, the underbrush has grown unchecked. Trees have grown so close together that they are stunting their own growth, in many cases so much so that they are too small to harvest for the sawmill. This dense, stunted forest is a prime candidate for outbreaks of disease, insects and rampant canopy fires. Let’s not forget that, in recent decades, we have built towns and subdivisions in this landscape.
The intervals of fire are different in pinon and juniper forest types, but the situation is similar. Wildfire has not been allowed to maintain the landscape and it is overgrown with highly flammable coniferous trees, brush and cheatgrass. This is prime real estate for towns and subdivisions. Most of our homes are in the lower-elevation ponderosa and pinon/juniper environments.
The high-altitude spruce and fir landscape follows a different fire and disease interval that sees much larger impacts naturally on a 200- to 300-year cycle.
What all of this means for most of southwest Colorado is that we are living in areas that are surrounded by an unnatural overabundance of fuel for wildland fires. We also are seeing the effects of a changing climate. Periods of drought and high winds promote tinder dry conditions in our forests. What has been happening in California is not unique. The situation there is amplified by a much higher population.
What can we do?
For many years, we tried to put all wildfires out. Experience has shown that that approach has been contributing to the problem. We have learned that as long as lightning, people and machines are around, we cannot prevent wildfires from occurring.
Once they are burning, it is very difficult to control them, but we do have a lot of resources to call on.
Some of the most dramatic-looking means of control involve aircraft drops on the fire. Fire retardant dropped from planes is just what the name says, “retardant.” It can do a lot to slow a fire or create areas that it is harder for the fire to move into. Aerial water drops can also slow a fire, but keep in mind that a very hot burn can vaporize a lot of that water before it reaches the flames. I’ve heard many a wildland firefighter say that you need enough water to turn the ground to mud if you want to put a fire out. That is more water than you can feasibly drop from the air. Keep in mind also that there are a lot of limitations on when you can fly above a fire to drop water or retardant. Terrain, wind speed, smoke and people flying drones can all ground air support.
Hand and equipment crews on the ground can do a lot to remove fuels and create breaks. It is hot, dirty work. Smoke can make conditions unbearable. Although these crews take many precautions, both they and the aerial crews put their lives at risk while fighting the spread of wildfires. In spite of all their efforts, it very often takes a change in the weather for crews to get a handle on a large wildfire.
No matter what they do, they cannot control embers on the wind. Any one of those thousands of blowing embers can start a new spot fire.
We cannot stop wildfires from occurring, and we cannot always control them when we want to. But we can make our wild lands more resilient to wildfire.
Thinning the forests and cutting the underbrush are quite effective at helping to create a healthy forest. Proper spacing between trees and less underbrush (ladder fuels) can help keep wildfire on the ground and out of the tree canopies, where it is difficult, if not impossible, to control. This mitigation also means that trees have less competition for moisture in times of drought. Trees with enough moisture use sap to push beetles out of their bark. Beetles can get the upper hand when trees don’t produce enough sap to protect themselves. Healthy forests are less susceptible to drought, wildfire and beetles.
This type of mechanical thinning work is expensive. If the trees harvested are overcrowded, stunted and small, they are not of much value to a sawmill. Some of that less marketable wood is being utilized as wood chips, made into biochar and other uses. The federal government helps subsidize the mitigation of private and federally managed lands through the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), Bureau of Indian Affairs and grants to organizations. The Colorado State Forest Service (CSFS) also has programs to help defray the costs.
Once land has been restored to a more resilient state, managed fire is arguably the most effective and least expensive way to maintain the natural resiliency. Under the proper wind and weather conditions, managed fire can keep underbrush in check and mimic the natural thinning process of the forest. Afterward, the easily ignited fuels are no longer available to feed an uncontrolled wildfire. Nutrients from the burned vegetation are returned to the soil.
Procedures and protocols for managed fires are strict and have been successfully used hundreds of times. No matter how many precautions are taken, however, there is a possibility that the managed fire could escape its intended area. Over the years, although they have been few, there have been some disastrous exceptions, usually brought about by an unexpected change in the weather. Hopefully, continual improvements in weather prediction and strict adherence to favorable conditions will allow safe managed burns to continue.
The other issue with managed fire is smoke. The smoke can be a health issue for those at risk. Sometimes it can hang in the air for a week or longer. Unlike a wildfire, which does not have a predetermined start and end date, residents can prepare in advance to cope with the impact or to plan some away time. As one old-timer put it, “I’d rather put up with a few days of smoke now than deal with flames at my back door tomorrow.”
Understandably, starting fires in order to protect the landscape from wildfires is not an idea that everyone is comfortable with, but managed fire is an extremely effective way to protect the forest and surrounding communities from the unpredictable devastation of a wildfire.
How does a fire move into populated areas? What can happen then?
There are two common ways that fire can spread.
One way is that flames will move from one fuel source to the next. If the fuels are continuous, flames can walk along, burning everything they can. Wind and slopes can accelerate the travel and heat generated. Even if the fuels aren’t touching, if the radiant heat is high enough, nearby objects can reach combustion temperature and will ignite, seemingly exploding into flame.
The other way that fire can spread is through embers and firebrands. These burning embers can be picked up by the wind and carried anywhere the wind takes them. Near a wildfire, a blizzard of embers can swirl, dropping hot firebrands far from the main fire. If they land on suitable tinder or kindling, a new spot fire is started. Burning embers have been known to travel 2 miles or more. During the West Fork Complex Fires near Wolf Creek Pass in 2013, embers were carried 2.5 miles over the Continental Divide and started fires on the other side of that rocky, treeless barrier.
When a wildfire gets into a community, it still follows the same ways to spread. In this case, the paths of fuel may be houses, sheds, vegetation, trees, shrubs, wooden fences, wood piles, decks, fuel tanks, vehicles and radiant heat from burning structures. Any and all of those fuels can create embers that start spot fires ahead of the original burns. Things can amplify quickly when homes are close together.
What can we do to
prepare our homes for wildfire?
We need to realize that wildfires are inevitable. They have been happening since the glaciers receded from this land. It is a question of when, not if, the next one will occur.
Another important fact that we should be aware of: More than 85 percent of the homes lost to wildfire are not directly touched by the flames.
This might sound crazy, but remember, flames have to be close enough to ignite a structure. Embers can carry fire almost anywhere. If a wildfire or its embers gain a foothold in a residential area, the structure fires can spread quickly and overwhelm local firefighters.
Water can become an issue also, as numerous hydrants are in use and water lines in burning homes rupture. Every water system has limits as to the amount of pressure and volume that can be provided when that much water is being consumed.
If embers can get inside of a structure, they can usually find something flammable. If we can harden our homes against embers, the odds of our home surviving a wildfire go up dramatically.
A good place to start is the roof. Roof coverings should be class A fire rated. Metal, tile and composite shingles all carry this rating. Valleys and dormers need to be kept clean and free of needles and leaves. Eavestroughs should not be made of combustible material and should be kept free of debris. Soffit and fascia are important. Fire-resistant materials are best. There should be no gaps or exposed eaves. Roof and crawl space vents need 1/8-inch metal screening. Walls should be of ignition-resistant material (noncombustible, retardant treated wood or heavy log). It is highly recommended that 6 inches to 18 inches of siding at ground level around the home be noncombustible. Embers like to accumulate where the walls meet the ground, so this area is critical. Heat can often crack glass, allowing embers an entryway. Double-pane windows offer one other layer of protection. If they are tempered glass, that is even better.
Decks are a critical part of the structure. If they are attached to the house, they are part of the house as far as fire is concerned. Flammable items on or under the deck can be just the fuel that embers need to ignite your home. It is recommended to screen under decks with 1/8-inch metal screen to keep leaves, needles and critters from building nests. Fire-resistant decking is a good option, but remember that the decking is mounted on wooden joists. You don’t want a pile of leaves to serve as kindling under those joists.
As we move out from the home, the first 5 feet are really important. If any fire is burning within 5 feet of a structure, that building is threatened. This is especially true if the structure siding is wood. Things to avoid are any flammable plants, wood chip mulch, leaves, needles, grasses more than 4 inches tall, etc. Probably the worst thing to plant in that 5-foot zone is anything in the evergreen family. Junipers and decorative pines are common culprits. Their needles contain volatile oils that are highly flammable.
The next area of concern is the zone from 5 to 30 feet out from the structure. Some shrubs and trees are acceptable here as long as there are no branches within 10 feet of the house and the trees or shrubs are separated from each other by at least 10 feet. Small groups of trees or a clump of shrubs are acceptable but require at least a 30-foot separation. Any trees in this zone should have ladder fuels removed beneath the tree crown plus an additional 10 feet. Grasses should be mowed to a height of 4 inches.
From 30 to 100 feet from the structure, a bit more vegetation is acceptable, but spacings are recommended. Minimums would be 6 to 10 feet between individual tree crowns, 30 feet between crowns of small groups of trees and 30-foot spacings between clumps of brush. Ladder fuels under trees should be removed, but grasses need not be mowed.
These are simplified minimum criteria to make it harder for wildfire to damage your buildings or home. Steep slopes will increase the area that must be protected. Firewise/USA and the CSFS have information and graphics that illustrate home hardening and the defensible space zones that were mentioned earlier. A wildfire mitigation specialist can give you a better idea of what your particular property needs.
Who can help private landowners in Archuleta County?
The NRCS is a federal agency that can aid landowners with forestry, rangeland and riparian concerns.
If you own or lease cropland, rangeland, grass land or forest land, it has programs that can help with payments for vegetative improvements. Over the last five years, it has helped county property owners treat almost 1,000 acres of forest land and reimbursed those owners $1.3 million toward that work. The NRCS has an Archuleta County office at 505 County Road 600 (Piedra Road) and can be reached at (970) 731-3615.
For home, structure and surrounding land protection, Wildfire Adapted Partnership (WAP) is the local 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that provides individual property owners and communities with assistance.
Last year alone, WAP performed 100 free site visits (on lots ranging from one-quarter acre to 200 acres), helped homeowners protect more than 200 structures and reimbursed them almost $200,000 toward removing hazardous vegetation.
WAP strives to inspire, educate and enable individuals and communities to protect lives and property from wildfire. It was one of the national pioneers of utilizing neighborhood ambassadors to help protect communities from wildfire.
It has operated since 2003 in the southwest Colorado counties of Archuleta, La Plata, Montezuma, Dolores and San Juan. WAP is also the local liaison for the National Fire Protection Association Firewise/USA Recognition Status program, which aims to protect communities from wildfire.
Information and local contacts can be found at wildfireadapted.org.
The Chama Peak Land Alliance is a group of landowners and managers who are committed to embracing and practicing responsible land, water and wildlife stewardship in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. Its membership manages more than 200,000 acres in our area and has helped obtain funds to perform much-needed work across both states. It can be reached at chamapeak.org.
An important and influential organization that strives to improve the health of forests watersheds and communities is the San Juan Headwaters Forest Health Partnership.
This collaborative group has been operating in the Pagosa Springs area since 2008. The stakeholders in that group are quite diverse and include the organizations mentioned earlier plus local government (county and town), the USFS, the CSFS, local water groups, Pagosa Fire Protection District, Weminuche Audubon Society, Mountain Studies Institute, members of the general public and too many others to list here.
This partnership has successfully contributed to numerous local projects to improve our forests and communities, in particular mitigation on Reservoir Hill, at Cloman Park, low-income mitigation in Aspen Springs and targeting work in the Fourmile watershed that allowed firefighters the opportunity to stop the eastward progress of the Plumtaw Fire in 2023. Information and lists of partners can be found at sanjuanheadwaters.org.
Another innovative partnership was formed in this area, the 2-3-2 Cohesive Strategy Partnership. This group was formed in 2016 around the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy priorities of restoring and maintaining landscapes, creating fire-adapted communities, and responding to fire.
The organization is one of the first to address these issues across two state lines, three river drainages, two major watersheds and in two USFS Forest Service regions.
Stakeholders span the diverse groups, agencies and individuals who are active in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. They meet regularly to discuss and plan on how the area can address the goals of the strategy and on means to fund and implement actions that support the landscape and communities within it. Additional information is available at 232partnership.org.
Federal funding freezes
On Jan. 27, a White House memo put a freeze on federal grants. The funds that had been allocated to WAP were immediately stopped and WAP was informed that the stoppage could be temporary or permanent.
The next day, a federal judge called a temporary halt to the freeze, and on Jan. 29 the White House rescinded the freeze order.
Statements from the White House were that the freeze is being postponed for the time being, but will be enacted at a later date.
Although the freeze was rescinded, there are executive orders that have stopped many of the grants approved by Congress. Like many other organizations who perform public services, WAP receives congressionally approved grant funds as a reimbursement for work done and services performed.
WAP, like most small nonprofits, does not have reserve funds or advance funding. Losing these contracted funds would end the programs that WAP has been providing in this county.
WAP is the sole organization in Archuleta County that provides property owner education and assistance with wildfire mitigation regarding home hardening and defensible space. Funding for this work is provided by donations, local government and federal grants. Ninety-nine percent of WAP activities in Archuleta County are funded by federal grants. It has not yet been determined if the grants which were approved by Congress for a specified number of years will still be honored.
WAP has been helping the residents and property owners in southwest Colorado for more than 20 years and will continue to offer education and outreach in Archuleta County through its network of volunteer ambassadors for as long as possible.
Currently, it is unknown if its other programs will continue.
